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Emersson Forigua - Octubre 18 de 2021
EL RETORNO DEL DRAGÓN: CHINA Y SU TRADICIÓN DE PENSAMIENTO ESTRATÉGICO
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Emersson Forigua R
La República Popular de China se ha posicionado como la segunda potencia económica del mundo, estando previsto que conquiste el primer lugar hacia el 2030, desplazando de esta posición a los Estados Unidos quien cada vez afronta más problemas externos e internos para continuar sosteniendo su liderazgo internacional. Los éxitos económicos de China han sido extraordinarios, siendo el segundo país del mundo con más multimillonarios (626), al tiempo que ha logrado que dentro de las 500 compañías más grandes del mundo, 124 pertenezcan a este país asiático. Asimismo, ha conseguido posicionarse como la nación más rica del mundo (FMI 2021), al tiempo que cuenta con el sector bancario más acaudalado y el banco con mayores activos (Banco Industrial y Comercial de China).
Sus triunfos también se han visto en el sorprendente crecimiento de sus ciudades, el desarrollo de su infraestructura, el fortalecimiento de sus capacidades militares, su ingreso a la carrera espacial, el crecimiento de su clase media, la reducción de la pobreza, la puesta en marcha de la nueva ruta de la seda y el rol decisivo que juega el país en temas centrales de la “IV Revolución Industrial”, tales como: La inteligencia artificial, el internet de las cosas, el big data, el aprendizaje automático, la impresión 3D, la robótica avanzada, los nuevos materiales, los materiales inteligentes, la nanotecnología, las capacidades cibernéticas, las redes 5G, el monitoreo remoto, los estudios genéticos o la neurotecnología. Estos logros han generado una enérgica aunque poco coherente respuesta de Estados Unidos y otros actores internacionales que se preguntan: ¿Cómo explicar que el país comunista más grande del mundo, aquejado por un grave atraso hace cuarenta años, se haya convertido en una superpotencia económica que se perfila como la mayor potencia mundial en las próximas décadas?
Una primera parte de la respuesta a esta pregunta se encuentra en las decididas acciones implementadas por el gobierno chino desde el ascenso al poder de Deng Xiaoping (1904-1997), líder supremo de la República Popular China entre diciembre 1978 - noviembre de 1989, quien junto con la cúpula del partido comunista ejerció un notable liderazgo con el que se propuso modernizar el país desarrollando un “Socialismo con características chinas”. Con este curso de acción se buscó dejar atrás los trágicos años vividos bajo Mao Tse Tung y sus fallidas políticas para industrializar el país (Gran Salto Adelante, 1958-1961) y acabar con cualquier rastro del capitalismo, de la burguesía, de la sociedad tradicional China y con la oposición interna (Revolución Cultural, 1966-1976). Funestas políticas que se saldaron con elevados niveles de violencia, hambruna, purgas y más de cincuenta millones de muertes, así como resultados controversiales.
Deng impulsó de forma pragmática un programa económico de reforma y apertura, con el cual liberalizó la economía, permitió el resurgimiento del sector privado, descentralizó el poder, desmanteló las comunas y dio mayores libertades a los campesinos para administrar sus tierras y vender sus productos. También abrió China al exterior visitando los Estados Unidos (Enero de 1979) y fortaleció las relaciones con Washington, al tiempo que puso en marcha contratos comerciales con occidente, dinamizando la inversión extranjera en China y atrayendo a las grandes multinacionales capitalistas. El objetivo fue claro: Convertir a China en el mayor productor y exportador del mundo, restaurando el estatus de potencia del país, un curso de acción que sus sucesores han mantenido (Yang Shangkun 1988-1993, Jiang Zemin 1993-2003, Hu Jintao 2003-2013 y Xi Jinping 2013 - Hoy).
Las líneas de política impulsadas por Deng, así como por los demás presidentes de China, descansan en siete acciones estratégicas vigorosamente impulsadas por el Estado y densamente interconectadas entre sí, que ayudan a explicar el éxito de la República Popular. En primer lugar ha sido de la mayor importancia la “Formulación de una estrategia estatal”, de largo plazo, que ha tomado cuerpo a través de tres grandes estrategias: Recuperación (1978-1989), Construcción del poder nacional (1990-2003) y Rejuvenecimiento (2004-Hoy). Estas estrategias toman forma a través de planes quinquenales (Hoy está en vigor el 14° Plan 2021-2025) y buscan asegurar el control del partido comunista sobre el país y la sociedad, así como un buen gobierno, la estabilidad social, la prosperidad económica, el desarrollo tecnológico, la modernización socialista y el posicionamiento del país como una potencia militar.
En segundo lugar, está la “Ley de Join Venture (1979)”, que ha sido el motor del crecimiento económico interno y externo. Estas asociaciones estratégicas temporales se han llevado a cabo en el marco de una dura competencia interna y permitieron que en promedio 20.000 empresas se hayan asentado anualmente en China, desde 1978. A través de ellas se ha logrado producir grandes cantidades de productos a muy bajos costos y reinvertir en el país, realizándose siempre una constante evaluación de costo - beneficio. Para el éxito de las Join Venture, ha jugado un papel fundamental el “Lishu”, que es una densa red de interconexiones entre la jerarquía estatal y las empresas controladas por el gobierno central, provincias, ciudades y prefecturas de las comunidades urbanas y rurales, que permiten movilizar recursos, minimizar costos y maximizar beneficios.
En tercer lugar, ha sido vital la creación y consolidación de una “Fuerza laboral barata y bien educada”. Estimada en aproximadamente 786 millones de personas, la mano de obra China es económica y está cada vez mejor formada, estando a la vanguardia del posicionamiento de una cultura de innovación, investigación, desarrollo y tecnología, respaldada por el Estado. En este proceso ha sido fundamental el regreso de expatriados o estudiantes formados en las mejores universidades del mundo (Eran 860 en 1978 y fueron 608.400 en 2018), recibiendo los chinos una intensa formación académica y entrenamiento en tecnología, administración de negocios internacionales, economía, finanzas, comercio internacional, telecomunicaciones, alta tecnología, matemáticas, física e ingeniería, entre otras áreas del conocimiento, que le permiten estar a la vanguardia de la competencia global.
En cuarto lugar, ha sido medular la formulación e implementación de una “Estrategia de internacionalización”, enfocada en el comercio y el posicionamiento de las empresas chinas en todo el mundo, conocidas popularmente como “Dragones”. Estas empresas, que eran 12 en 2000 y han llegado a ser 126 en 2020, se fortalecieron gracias a la invitación realizada a las empresas occidentales, de todo tamaño, para transferir su producción a China y luego exportar siendo esta estrategia un curso de acción en el que muchos han creído ver la aplicación de las enseñanzas de Sun Tzu y su Arte de la Guerra. La estrategia de internacionalización también le permitió a China conquistar los mercados de África, Suramérica, Asia o Europa Oriental, donde pequeños negocios o empresas despejan el camino a empresas más grandes, contando con el apoyo logístico, financiero y en impuestos, del Estado chino.
En quinto lugar, se debe mencionar la estrategia de “Fusiones y adquisiciones” de la República Popular, mediante la cual el gobierno chino ha impulsado la compra de compañías extranjeras en todo el mundo. De esta forma han comprado empresas, negocios e industrias en bancarrota en Estados Unidos y otros lugares de América, Europa, Asia o África, poniendo un énfasis especial en la adquisición de empresas mineras, energéticas y commodities. En esta dinámica ha sido crucial el otorgamiento de préstamos y la adquisición de infraestructura estratégica en otros países, tal y como se ha hecho en lugares como Sri Lanka (Puerto de Hambantota) o Grecia (Puerto de Pireo) a través del Banco Asiático de Inversión en Infraestructura, siendo muchos de estos lugares nodos estratégicos de la estrategia comercial del país al vincular negocios e industrias con las redes de producción de materias primas, zonas de producción y mercados.
En sexto lugar, ha sido fundamental el desarrollo de una estrategia de “Cadenas de suministro locales y extranjeras” que son el combustible de la economía China, siendo por ello este país el mayor comprador mundial de materia primas, la cuales provienen principalmente de África. A través de las cadenas de suministro los chinos adquieren productos agrícolas en Brasil, Argentina, Asia Oriental o el sur de Asia, al tiempo que se surten de minerales, hidrocarburos y otras materias primas desde Venezuela, África o Asia Central, exportando sus productos a África, Asia, Europa y EEUU. En este marco ha sido trascendental la puesta en marcha de “La Nueva Ruta de la Seda” en sus componentes terrestre y marítimo, que permite asegurar estos flujos. Este proyecto se ve acompañado por el creciente poderío militar y naval de China, así como por la construcción o modernización de la infraestructura en los países que recorre, al tiempo que copan los mercados locales importando - vendiendo a precios menores.
Finalmente, está la estrategia de “Tecnología, R&D e innovación” que ha sido decisiva para entender el éxito del país. China, como pocos países en el mundo, ha fortalecido sus procesos de innovación interna, al tiempo que continúa comprando compañías y accediendo a ventajas a través de las Join Venture. El Estado ha realizado y recibido altísimas inversiones de empresas extranjeras en R&D debido a la abundante, educada y poco costosa fuerza laboral que ofrece el país. Los chinos también han logrado desarrollar una cultura de innovación, investigación, desarrollo y tecnología respaldada por el Estado, quien para 2017 invirtió USD$279 billones en R&D, siendo también central el fomento de alianzas entre el “Gobierno - Universidades - Industria”. Esto le ha permitido posicionarse como una de las veinte economías más innovadoras del mundo, mientras que EEUU ha perdido cinco puestos, siendo prioritario el desarrollo de siete industrias: Biotecnología, nuevas energías, manufactura de equipos de alta gama, combustibles alternativos para vehículos, nuevos materiales y la nueva generación de tecnologías de la información.
Estas siete estrategias impulsadas por la China comunista son una primera parte de la explicación del éxito del país. Sin embargo, hay un segundo aspecto que no puede pasarse por alto, aunque es difícil de valorar en toda su magnitud debido a la compleja relación del partido comunista con algunos aspectos de la antigua historia del país, siendo este: Su milenaria tradición de pensamiento estratégico. Los chinos desarrollaron y sistematizaron desde hace siglos una potente tradición de pensamiento estratégico en la que confluyen con extraordinaria fuerza los elementos centrales de esta forma de pensar y actuar, siendo estos: El conocimiento de los generales o líderes (Principio del liderazgo), la capacidad organizacional (Cómo hacer las cosas para alcanzar un objetivo, desarrollar una estrategia) y la capacidad de futuro (Visión de lo que se quiere alcanzar) o de prever los acontecimientos antes de que sucedan con el fin de poder responder a ellos. Estos elementos, con sus victorias y derrotas, su luz y su oscuridad, le han permitido a China librar guerras, construir la paz, responder a coyunturas críticas, direccionar el Estado, guiar la sociedad y dar pautas para la vida de los individuos.
De esa tradición de pensamiento estratégico surgen nombres que se han posicionado con fuerza en los imaginarios occidentales, tales como Sun Tzu, Sun Bin, Confucio o Tang Taizong, extraordinarios líderes militares, estadistas o filósofos, que occidente ha popularizado principalmente y no pocas veces de forma superficial, principalmente en el mundo de los negocios. En ese sentido se puede empezar por decir que durante el Siglo VI.AC, China vivió un vigoroso periodo de florecimiento intelectual con las enseñanzas de Lao Tzu o “El viejo gran maestro” (604.AC - 531.AC), Confucio o “Kung Fu Tzu - Maestro Kung” (551.AC - 479.AC) y Sun Tzu o “Maestro Sun” (544.AC - 496.AC), quienes cimentaron una poderosa tradición de pensamiento para Asia Oriental que abarca la existencia, la religión, la moral, el gobierno, el liderazgo, la sociedad, la guerra o los individuos, ente muchos otros.
De Lao Tzu todo lo que sabemos sobre su vida está envuelto en la bruma de las leyendas, mencionando Huston Smith en sus “Religiones del mundo”, que el primer historiador de China y contemporáneo del viejo maestro, Ssu-ma Ch´ien, habló de la impresión enigmática que causaba, pues Lao Tzu daba la sensación de poseer niveles de entendimiento que desafiaban la comprensión corriente. Smith recoge la descripción que hizo Confucio de Lao Tzu, de quien dijo: “Yo sé que un pájaro puede volar, sé que un pez puede nadar, sé que los animales pueden correr. Las criaturas que corren pueden ser atrapadas con redes, las que nadan pueden ser pescadas con trampas de mimbre, las que vuelan pueden ser abatidas con flechas. Pero el dragón escapa a mis conocimientos, el dragón asciende al cielo montado en las nubes y en el viento. Hoy he visto a Lao Tzu y !!! Es como un dragón !!! (Smith, 2008, pág:201)”.
Lao Tzu no predicó, no organizó una religión, no se enfrentó a ningún gobierno, no conquistó y no buscó el reconocimiento, la fama o la fortuna. Las leyendas cuentan que, decepcionado por la no aceptación de sus ideas, decidió abandonar la sociedad, razón por la cual se montó en un búfalo y se dirigió hacia el oeste, tal vez hacia el Tíbet. En el paso de Hankao, un guardia, impresionado por su presencia, le pidió que dejara sus ideas escritas ante la negativa del maestro de dar marcha atrás, petición a la que Lao Tzu accedió. Tras trabajar durante tres días, reapareció para entregar un breve texto de cinco mil palabras que tituló “Tao Te King o Libro del poder del camino”, que se convirtió en el texto central del pensamiento taoísta, un maravilloso documento que aunque se puede leer en una hora, lograr su comprensión puede llevar toda una vida.
El Tao Te King gira en torno al concepto del “Tao”, que se traduce literalmente como “camino” o “vía”, siendo el sendero de la realidad máxima que escapa a la comprensión humana, así como la vía del universo y de la vida humana. El taoísmo en China, perene como el Yin y el Yang, se desarrolló de tres formas: El taoísmo filosófico, el taoísmo religioso y un taoísmo heterogéneo que se enfoca en facilitar el flujo del poder del Tao en los seres humanos; buscando en general estas vertientes dar pautas para vivir con sabiduría, evitar toda violencia, aumentar el Shih de los individuos, vivir en armonía con la naturaleza, conservar la energía de la vida y sintonizar la vida diaria de las personas con el Tao (Wu wei - Quietud creativa).
Este poderoso cuerpo de conocimiento, presentado muchas veces como la antítesis del confucianismo, así como una doctrina esotérica y secreta debido a que daba poderes extraordinarios a sus practicantes, influyó un sin número de dinámicas relacionadas con la conducción del gobierno, la guerra, la sociedad, las artes marciales y la vida privada de las personas, extendiéndose ampliamente por toda China, así como por los territorios que entraron directa e indirectamente en contacto con su cultura. Thomas Cleary, en su obra “El arte de la estrategia” señala que el taoísmo, al igual que el confusionismo, se extendió en dos vertientes, una denominada de las “Cortes reales” y otra llamada de “Campo”.
En la primera imperaba la reflexión filosófica, intelectual y religiosa, cuyo propósito era el de consolidar el poder político, siendo una actitud hacia la vida, mientras que en la segunda se buscaba una comprensión interior práctica, así como el desarrollo de una mente fértil a partir del pensamiento creativo y la iniciativa, con el fin de identificar aplicaciones pragmáticas en las situaciones de la vida cotidiana, tanto a nivel individual como colectivo. De esta forma el taoísmo irradió unas profundas raíces en la sociedad, la vida pública y la política de China, experimentando momentos de esplendor y decaimiento, a lo largo de la milenaria historia del país.
De las enseñanzas de Lao Tzu para el mundo de la estrategia, Thomas Cleary destaca en su obra las reflexiones que legó este venerable maestro en torno a: La riqueza (Quienes están satisfechos son ricos), la economía (La economía es beneficio, el exceso es confusión), las clases sociales (Cuando las clases superiores potentadas son arrogantes, su legado las condena), el conocimiento (Quienes conocen a los demás son sabios, quienes se conocen a sí mismos están iluminados) o la observación (Siempre que eres imparcial, puedes observar lo que es sutil, siempre que tienes deseos puedes observar mediante ellos lo que buscas).
Asimismo, para el mundo de la estrategia han sido de la mayor importancia sus máximas sobre el poder (Quienes vencen a los demás son poderosos, quienes se vencen a si mismo son fuertes), el gobierno (El pueblo es puro cuando el gobierno es discreto, el pueblo es codicioso cuando el gobierno es agresivo), el éxito (Todos los seres trabajan, si no son posesivos ni presuntuosos en su forma de vivir y actuar y no se aferran a sus propios éxitos, esto les asegurará un continuo éxito) y la eficacia (Los buenos son eficaces, eso es todo, no intentan por ello agarrarse al poder, son eficaces pero no engreídos, eficaces pero no orgullosos, eficaces pero no arrogantes, son eficaces cuando tienen que serlo, eficaces pero no coercitivos).
El “Viejo Gran Maestro” también abordó temas a los que se les ha dado una clara orientación marcial, tales como la seguridad (Sabiendo cuándo detenerte, estás a salvo del peligro), los adversarios (Ningún desastre es peor que subestimar tus adversarios), la fuerza (Lo flexible vence a lo inflexible, la docilidad supera a la fuerza), la victoria (Cuando dos ejércitos enemigos se enfrentan, los compasivos son los que ganan), los fanfarrones (Los charlatanes están al borde de la demencia una y otra vez, es mejor permanecer centrado), los crímenes (Ningún crimen es mayor que la aprobación de la codicia, ninguna calamidad es mayor que estar insatisfecho, ninguna falta es mayor que ser posesivo) y la fluidez (Nada en el mundo es tan suave y flexible como el agua, para disolver lo duro y lo inflexible no hay nada mejor, lo maleable vence a lo duro, lo suave vence a lo rígido; todos saben que esto es verdad pero pocos pueden llevarlo a la práctica).
De especial importancia fueron las palabras que dedicó al liderazgo (Un líder es mejor cuando la gente apenas sabe que existe, de un buen líder se habla poco, cuando su trabajo esté hecho, su objetivo cumplido, la gente dirá: Esto lo hicimos nosotros), uno de los aspectos centrales del pensamiento estratégico. De esta forma el viejo Maestro dotó a China de una poderosa herramienta de pensamiento y un cuerpo de ideas, que ha servido de base para su vigorosa tradición de pensamiento estratégico al abordar temas que están intrínsecamente relacionados con los tres pilares de esta forma de pensar, al tiempo que ha servido como guía para millones de chinos durante su milenaria historia pasando de ser un conocimiento secreto a una fuerza que influye activamente en la esfera pública, la política y la vida privada de las personas.
El Primer Maestro o Confucio (551.AC - 479.AC), es desde hace veinticinco siglos una de las figuras más reverenciadas e influyentes de la cultura e historia de China, gracias a su ejemplo, dichos, reflexiones, anécdotas y máximas morales, las cuales han sido recogidas en su obra “Analectas o Lún - Yu”. Las diversas fuentes sobre su vida indican que nació en la actual provincia de Shantung (Reino de Lu) y que vivió una niñez marcada por la pobreza, estando bajo el cuidado de su madre ante el temprano fallecimiento de su padre, abriéndose camino en medio de unas duras condiciones de vida. Esta situación lo puso en contacto desde muy pequeño con personas comunes, siendo un joven que a los 15 años se dedicó a los estudios, actividad en la obtuvo un desempeño satisfactorio, practicando también la pesca, la caza o el tiro con arco.
Tras ocupar diversos cargos gubernamentales carentes de importancia y contraer un matrimonio poco afortunado, decidió trabajar como tutor, profesión en la que su sabiduría, cualidades personales e intelecto, lo llevaron a rodearse de un decidido círculo de discípulos y adquirir con rapidez una venerable reputación. A lo largo de su vida buscó un importante cargo público convencido de que, al ejercerlo, podría demostrar que sus teorías funcionaban y de que sería capaz de reorganizar de forma virtuosa la sociedad así como el gobierno, una meta en la que fracasó. Algunos biógrafos mencionan cinco años de un esplendoroso gobierno cuando tenía algo más de 50 años, momento en el que tras ocupar los cargos públicos de Ministro de Obras y de Justicia, habría llegado a ser Primer Ministro, periodo en el que convirtió a Lu en un reino modelo.
Cumplidas cinco décadas de su vida, dedicó los trece años siguientes a recorrer los diferentes reinos de China con el fin de dar a los gobernantes consejos, algunas veces no solicitados, sobre la forma acertada de gobernar, transformar la sociedad, preocuparse por la gente, vivir en armonía y alcanzar la paz, al tiempo que buscaba una oportunidad para poner en práctica sus ideas. No logró tener éxito en estos propósitos, pero pese al fracaso y burlas de las que fue objeto, no se dio por vencido afrontando la situación con dignidad e ingenio, estando inmerso en un mundo que parecía inaccesible a la redención. Los últimos cinco años de su vida los pasó en su reino natal, Lu, donde regresó tras un cambio en el poder, dedicando su tiempo a lo que siempre fue su vocación: La enseñanza, los libros y la edición de los textos clásicos chinos.
El Gran Maestro tenía un carácter asombroso, era exigente consigo mismo, alegre, digno y agradable, comía y bebía con moderación, enseñando a sus discípulos sobre historia, gobierno, matemáticas, ética, poesía, música, deportes y otros temas, siendo legendaria su extraordinaria manera de preguntar, así como la forma modesta, humana y sencilla con la que se comunicaba con sus alumnos o cualquier otra persona. No tenía problema en reconocer que se había equivocado, al tiempo que era inflexible respecto a su misión de transformar el orden social, tarea que siempre afrontó con un genial sentido del humor, así como una actitud equilibrada y proporcional, lo que evitó que se convirtiera en un fanático radical.
Confucio moldeó la civilización china y logró esta extraordinaria hazaña gracias a la fuerza de sus reflexiones, en el contexto en el que fueron realizadas. Durante la vida del Gran Maestro, China se sumergió en un violento periodo de anarquía social debido al paulatino colapso de la dinastía Zhou (1046.AC - 256.AC), derrumbe que se dividió en dos momentos: El de La Primavera y el Otoño (771.AC - 470.AC) y el periodo de los Estados Guerreros (475.AC - 221.AC). Tal y como lo expone Huston Smith en su obra sobre “Las religiones del mundo”, durante el periodo de vida del Primer Maestro la interminable guerra entre los Estados se había degradado de forma significativa dando origen a una ola de caos que se caracterizó por todo tipo de violencia, crímenes, crueldades, horrores, alianzas, genialidades, traiciones y argucias.
Estos hechos no solo habían acabado con la unidad del país, aún peor, habían destruido la cohesión social, es decir, con todos aquellos elementos que mantienen unida la sociedad y que permiten la cooperación entre las personas, así como la estabilidad, siendo las principales preguntas que todos se hacían: ¿Cómo podemos dejar de destruirnos? ¿Qué hacer cuando la gente no se comporta bien? ¿Cuál es el carácter de la vida social que se debe crear? En el clima de descomposición que se vivía en ese momento unos sectores respondían a estas preguntas que la solución estaba en la fuerza, herramienta central para enfrentar la violencia y los trasgresores, mientras que otros abogaban por el amor y la comprensión al prójimo, dos respuestas que estaban en los extremos del realismo inmisericorde e irreflexivo y el sentimentalismo inútil e impráctico.
En ese complejo contexto, Confucio también analizó la situación, reflexionó con profundidad y detenimiento sobre lo que estaba ocurriendo y propuso una respuesta, siendo la suya: “La Tradición”, ese era el curso de acción a seguir. Este genial e incisivo pensador identificó que “la mente funciona en un contexto de actitudes y emociones condicionadas por las relaciones que el individuo mantiene con el grupo, a menos que las experiencias registradas en estas relaciones le predispongan a uno a cooperar, es probable que el mayor uso de la razón no haga otra cosa que contribuir al desarrollo del interés propio (Smith, 2008, pág:174)”, siendo la tradición la herramienta que el Gran Maestro veía como el moldeador de las inclinaciones y actitudes de las personas, ofreciendo con ello una respuesta estructural a la problemática que se padecía y que iba más allá de la coyuntural, así como no pocas veces necesaria, utilización de la fuerza.
Para él, esta herramienta era “un medio para inyectar en el presente los modelos de conducta que habían sido perfeccionados durante la era dorada del pasado chino, la Era de la Gran Armonía (Smith, 2008, pág:174)”. Confucio era consciente que las personas y las sociedades cambian, siendo imposible reproducir el pasado en el presente, algo que influye sobre la tradición, de allí que propusiera la idea de una “Tradición Deliberada”, esto es una “tradición que debe ser apuntalada y reforzada mediante la atención consciente, ya que en tiempos de transición debe haber una continuidad con el pasado porque así se puede relacionar (El cambio) con lo que la gente conoce y tiene por costumbre, pudiendo ser aceptado en general… siendo igual de importante tener en cuenta que los sucesos de hoy invalidan las viejas respuestas (Smith, 2008, pág:175)”.
De esta forma, aunque Confucio se basó en la tradición y el pensamiento clásico de China, también los interpretó y reformuló creando un modelo de prestigio que incorporó valores que son admirados en la sociedad china. Así “un pueblo debe decidir primero qué valores son importantes para su bienestar colectivo… Después, todos los medios de educación, formales e informales, desde la cuna hasta la sepultura, deben ser transformados para interiorizar por completo estos nuevos valores… A la gente se le inculcaban las ideas morales por todos los medios posibles, los templos, los teatros, los hogares, los juegos, los proverbios, las escuelas, los cuentos y la historia, hasta que se convertían en hábitos cotidianos, hasta los festivales y los desfiles eran en ese sentido de carácter religioso… Con tales medios, hasta una sociedad constituida por individuos puede crear una tradición envolvente, un poder de sugestión que impulse a sus miembros a comportarse bien socialmente, aun cuando la ley no esté vigilándolos (Smith, 2008, pág:175)”.
Es central recordar que Confucio entendió su visión en el centro de las relaciones humanas, desarrollando una visión interrelacionada, en la que para él, “sin relaciones humanas no hay ser, el ser es un centro de relaciones, está construido por sus interacciones con otros y definido por la suma de sus roles sociales… No veía al ser humano como una entidad sino como un nexo, un lugar de encuentro donde convergen las vidas (Smith, 2008, pág:186)”, siendo este marco el que soporta las pautas sociales propuestas por Confucio: “Jen” (Relación ideal entre la personas), “Chun tzu” (Condición ideal de esas relaciones), “Li” (Corrección en el modo de hacer las cosas y ritual), “Té” (Poder por el que se rigen los hombres, que para el gobierno es suficiencia económica, suficiencia militar y confianza del pueblo) y “Wen” (Las artes, la cultura en su expresión estética y espiritual).
Siendo la oscura e inescrutable naturaleza humana lo que es, las ideas de Confucio han vivido momentos de esplendor y declive, habiendo sucumbido en algunos momentos al abuso de la autoridad, la inflexibilidad o la rigidez. Sin embargo, también contribuyeron de forma decisiva al pensamiento estratégico chino, aspecto en el que el Gran Maestro hizo trascendentales reflexiones al abordar, tal y como lo expone Cleary en su “Arte de la Estrategia”, temas como: Los errores (Se llama error a cometer una equivocación y no corregirla), el estudio (El estudio sin pensamiento es ciego, el pensamiento sin estudio es peligroso), la escucha (No promociones a las personas solo por lo que dicen, no ignores algo que se dice sólo a causa de quien lo dice), las palabras - acción (Yo solía escuchar lo que las personas decían y confiaba en que actuarían según sus palabras, ahora escucho lo que dicen y observo si actúan o no según sus palabras) y las promociones (Promociona la persona honrada sobre la inmoral y la gente lo aprobará, promociona a la inmoral sobre la honrada y la gente no obedecerá).
El Gran Maestro también abordó y resaltó la importancia de la prisa (No desees la rapidez, no prestes atención a las pequeñas ventajas, si deseas la rapidez, no tendrás éxito y si prestas atención a pequeñas ventajas, no realizarás grandes cosas), la autocorrección (Si puedes corregirte a ti mismo ¿qué problema te plantea el liderazgo?, sin embargo, si no puedes corregirte a ti mismo ¿qué puedes hacer para corregir a los demás?), la lealtad (Sé digno y las personas serán serias, se sociable y personas serán leales, promueve el bien, instruye a la personas no cualificadas y la gente se entusiasmará) y hace un llamado para cuidarse del liderazgo incompetente (Es cruel castigar a las personas sin haberlas amonestado, es brutal examinarlas sin haberlas instruido, es mezquino ser laxo en la dirección y poner plazos, es ser un mal burócrata el ser tacaño en dar lo que le es debido a los demás).
De esta forma el confucianismo, profundamente enraizado en el tejido social y la forma de gobernar de los chinos, se convirtió en una inagotable fuente de la que pueden beber las generaciones para aproximarse al pensamiento estratégico, al ser un referente que brinda trascendentales aportes sobre el carácter de un líder, las características que debe tener un buen gobierno, la importancia medular de contar con funcionarios competentes, así como la formación, el carácter y comportamientos que se deben fomentar para poder contar con buenos ciudadanos, con un buen cuerpo social. Estos elementos son centrales al momento de contar con un contexto o entorno, que de manera accidental o planificada, haga posible el surgimiento y consolidación del hábito del pensamiento estratégico. Así se reafirma la acertada expresión de que Confucio fue el maestro de diez mil generaciones.
Sun Tzu (544.AC - 496.AC), este brillante general, consejero militar, artista marcial y filósofo nació en el reino de Ch´i, estuvo al servicio del rey Helú en el reino de Wu quien se enfrentó al poderoso reino de Chu. El Maestro Sun fue el autor del “Bing Fa” o “El Arte de la Guerra”, un texto de profundas raíces taoístas, que le permitió convertirse en uno de los pensadores estratégicos chinos más importantes del mundo. Este destacado general, forjado en el brutal, caótico e implacable mundo de los “Estados Guerreros” nos enseña a trabajar de forma eficaz en medio del caos, el conflicto y la complejidad, situaciones que están presentes en muchas circunstancias de la vida de las personas o las organizaciones, pero que son especialmente inmisericordes en la guerra.
El Arte de la Guerra fue conocido en Japón desde la época de la Dinastía Tang y fue introducido en occidente hacia 1772 cuando el sacerdote Jesuita, Pere Amiot, lo tradujo del chino al francés, bajo el título “El arte militar chino”, siendo un texto que pudo ser estudiado por Napoleón. Se han encontrado también traducciones al ruso hacia 1800 y el Capitán E. F. Calthrop tradujo el texto del japonés al inglés en 1905, realizándose una traducción directamente del chino al inglés por parte del curador Museo Británico, Lionel Giles, en 1910. Bing Fa es un texto que exige de un gran esfuerzo para lograr la cabal comprensión de sus ideas y su alineación con las prácticas del mundo real, se nos presenta como una compleja colección de reflexiones, recomendaciones, significados, prácticas, métodos, modelos y observaciones, que descansan en una visión interconectada del mundo que es presentada de forma asociativa y no bajo un orden progresivo lineal.
En las muchas traducciones de la obra de Sun Tzu, se reconoce que por benignas o altruistas que sean nuestras intenciones siempre enfrentaremos algún tipo de resistencia activa o pasiva, no siendo pocas las situaciones en las que los Estados y sus gobernantes deberán enfrentar el conflicto, manifestando en el párrafo inicial del texto que “La guerra es de gran importancia para el Estado, un lugar de vida o muerte, el camino de la supervivencia o la ruina, debe estudiarse profundamente”. Para este general fue claro que el conflicto es una parte ineludible en la vida de los individuos y de los Estados, es inútil evitarlo, acabará por alcanzarnos y debemos prepararnos de forma consistente para hacerle frente, bien sea que se presente bajo la forma de una oposición organizada violenta, como una resistencia activa, a modo de un obstáculo pasivo, con el sutil ropaje de la inacción o en nuestra mente.
El texto, que fue concebido por un guerrero, reconoce que muchas veces es posible alcanzar los objetivos sin los costos de la destrucción y el derramamiento de sangre. Es por ello que Sun Tzu es enfático al señalar que para enfrentar el conflicto, es medular la idea del conocimiento, esa capacidad racional e intuitiva que se construye tras décadas de arduo trabajo, fracasos y éxitos, con el fin de poder entender con profundidad a los otros, a nosotros mismos, al contexto, a las interconexiones y en especial pasar a la acción, siendo algo que va más allá de la recopilación masiva de información o la reflexión teórico - especulativa. El conocimiento es uno de los elementos centrales del pensamiento estratégico ya que se espera que el general, el gobernante o el líder, cuente con el conocimiento y con la experiencia que exige su cargo, siendo este uno de los aspectos más valorados en la tradición estratégica china.
De los 82 capítulos que conformaban originalmente el texto solo han sobrevivido 13, debido a que el original de la obra de Sun Tzu, escrito en tablillas de bambú, fue destruido cuando unos invasores quemaron el pilar hueco de la torre donde el texto estaba oculto, siendo el contenido que se conoce transmitido casi un siglo después por Sun Bin, en su calidad de consejero militar del reino de Wei. En el texto sobreviviente es posible identificar unos métodos que enseñan a pensar y actuar, indicando una forma adecuada de hacer las cosas con el fin de enfrentar de forma eficaz el conflicto y el caos. No se aprende la sabiduría del Bing Fa a través de recetas preconcebidas, la sobre simplificación de sus aforismos o la repetición irreflexiva de sus líneas como si fuesen frases de marketing, cada máxima del texto está interconectada con un todo más amplio que debe verse en un contexto.
De acuerdo con traducciones como las de Thomas Cleary, Samuel B Griffin, Tsi Chih - Leong Weng o James Gimian - Barry Boyce, la aproximación holística de Sun Tzu al conflicto, descansa en la tupida interconexión entre el cielo (La visión que invita a la acción), la tierra (Las cosas prácticas que sirven como apoyo u obstáculo a aquella visión que queremos que se haga realidad) y el ser humano, que es el general o el gobernante, es el principio del liderazgo, es el individuo llamado a la acción que toma la visión del cielo y los elementos prácticos de la tierra para definir la estrategia que permitirá lograr los objetivos deseados. Es quien tiene el conocimiento, analiza los escenarios, decide el curso de acción, dirige el ejército en campaña, libra las batallas, administra los recursos disponibles y lucha hombro a hombro con sus hombres. Somos cada uno de nosotros dirigiendo nuestras vidas diariamente, muchas veces en medio de un mar de adversidades.
En su trabajo, el general o el gobernante emplea el “Shih”, un concepto complejo y sutil que en las incontables traducciones del Arte de la Guerra ha sido entendido de muchas formas, algunas veces se ha planteado como energía, otras como acción, ímpetu, autoridad, potencial o influencia moral, pero que en líneas generales tiende a hacer referencia, siguiendo a Thomas Cleary y otros autores, a una configuración de fuerzas que permite enfocar el poder de manera eficaz para alcanzar un objetivo. El empleo del Shih es una habilidad que se desarrolla con la práctica, requiere de la comprensión de la naturaleza de las cosas, de las personas y del contexto, manifestándose a través de estrategias concretas como el engaño, el ataque, la defensa, lo extraordinario, lo ortodoxo, la sorpresa, el espionaje, la transformación, la formación o la asimilación.
El Shih es un poderoso medio para enfrentar situaciones complejas, emergencias, alteraciones, incertidumbre o caos, siendo el poder del general un resultado del hecho de estar a la cabeza de una compleja red de relaciones y fuerzas, así como de una estructura organizacional que lo soporta, siendo los generales competentes individuos con grandes conocimientos en diversas áreas, habiendo sido forjados a través de la práctica y la experiencia. Es imposible conocer todas las configuraciones interconectadas de poder, influencia o autoridad, en especial las del enemigo, de allí que sea vital la capacidad de los guerreros para enfrentar la incertidumbre y adaptarse al cambio, tanto en los adversarios como en las circunstancias.
Cómo siempre ocurre, el desafío que plantea Sun Tzu está en pasar a la acción, en desarrollar esa capacidad de llevar a la práctica las ideas que dan cuerpo a la visión que nos otorga el cielo y que no pocas veces se queda en ideas, deseos, buenas intenciones o pequeños logros, muy alejados de lo que se buscaba, siendo fuentes inagotables de todo tipo de derrotas, fracasos o frustraciones. En el Arte de la Guerra, lo que permite unir la visión y la acción, es la práctica, que se entiende como la disciplina y el trabajo necesarios para hacer algo una y otra vez de forma viva, orgánica, instintiva, no limitándose a la repetición mecánica, buscando desarrollar la habilidad de enfrentar con éxito una situación, asimilando de forma profunda la manera de abordarla, siendo esta una de las principales cualidades que se busca en un general, los líderes o los pensadores estratégicos.
La práctica es una conducta que descansa en la cultura, los métodos, creencias, teorías, rutinas o pautas de conducta, que los lideres emplean para transformar la realidad del mundo, construirse a sí mismos, motivar sus subordinados y lograr sus objetivos en contextos específicos. De allí que el éxito en la guerra descanse en la densa interconexión entre los diferentes elementos que conforman el cielo, el general y la tierra, siendo necesario desarrollar una forma de pensar y de ser que está firmemente cimentada en una estructura mental que asimila esta compleja visión del mundo. Es por ello que el Arte de la Guerra de Sun Tzu sigue siendo un clásico del pensamiento estratégico, es decir, un texto en el que a través de los milenios los generales o las personas del común, pueden volver en los más diversos contextos para encontrar en sus palabras, reflexiones y consejos; orientación, guía e ideas novedosas en torno al liderazgo, el conocimiento que se espera que tengan los líderes, la capacidad organizacional y la capacidad de futuro.
Otro importante pensador estratégico chino fue Sun Bin o “Sun el mutilado”, quien escribió su “Arte de la Guerra” cerca de un siglo después de Sun Tzu, siendo al parecer uno de sus descendientes directos y aunque no se conoce su fecha de nacimiento se estima que falleció hacia el año 316.AC. También vivió en el periodo de los “Estados Guerreros”, en un momento en el que el caos y el horror se habían profundizado aún más, tal y como lo recogen los escritos de la “Estrategia de los Reinos Combatientes: Los usurpadores se establecían como señores y reyes, los Estados que eran gobernados por pretendientes y conspiradores armaban ejércitos para aumentar su poder. Se imitaban unos a otros cada vez más y quienes vinieron después de ellos también siguieron su ejemplo. Posteriormente se combatieron y destruyeron entre sí, conspirando con los reinos mayores para anexionar los reinos menores, empleando años en operaciones militares violentas y anegando los campos de sangre. Padres e hijos eran apartados entre sí, los hermanos estaban enemistados, maridos y mujeres estaban separados. Nadie podía poner a salvo su propia vida, desapreció la integridad (Cleary, 1996, pág.11)”.
Thomas Cleary, en su obra “El Arte de la Guerra de Sun Bin”, nos cuenta que este consejero militar estudió la guerra bajo la tutoría del misterioso maestro taoísta y estratega, Wang Li, conocido como “El Maestro del Valle del Demonio”, calificado como uno de los más temibles teóricos de la estrategia de todos los tiempos. Sun Bin llevó a cabo sus estudios con un compañero llamado Pang Yuan, de quien se hizo amigo. Tras terminar su formación, Pang Yuan fue contratado en la corte del Estado de Wei y nombrado general, sin embargo, llevado por la envidia y preocupado porque sus capacidades eran inferiores a las de su amigo, Sun Bin, quien ejercía como Consejero Militar, decidió poner en marcha un complot para eliminarlo. La historia cuenta que Pang Yuan interceptó una carta de Sun Bin a su Estado natal de Qi, con la cual convenció al rey de que su consejero militar deseaba desertar o cometer traición, por lo que fue detenido como un criminal y castigado.
Pang Yuan fingió sorpresa y prometió abogar ante el rey en su favor, aconsejando al monarca no ejecutar a Sun Bin, sino tan solo incapacitarlo con la amputación de los pies, en otras versiones se habla de la amputación de las rótulas de las rodillas y la realización de tatuajes en la cara, siendo este hecho el origen de su apodo de “mutilado”. Yuan fingió llorar mientras Sun Bin era torturado y se acreditó el haber salvado la vida de su amigo, a quien convenció para que escribiera un “Arte de la Guerra”, petición a la que accedió creyendo que le debía la vida. Sin embargo, un sirviente compasivo informó a este mortificado hombre que una vez terminara el texto, Pang Yuan tenía planeado dejarlo morir de hambre, por lo que Sun Bin fingió volverse loco, siendo encerrado en un chiquero, donde languideció hasta que un embajador del Estado de Qi, quien tuvo la fortuna de entrar en contacto con el cautivo, quedó deslumbrado por sus conocimientos en estrategia y guerra, ideando por ello un plan para sacarlo en un carro de té.
Aunque quisieron nombrarlo general del Estado de Qi, su condición física lo impidió, por lo que fue nombrado “Consejero Militar” del gran General Tian Ji. La extraordinaria capacidad intelectual de Sun Bin como estratega militar se evidenció con sus servicios al reino y fue recogida en el texto “Estrategias extraordinarias de cien batallas” del erudito guerrero de la dinastía Ming (1368-1644), Liu Ji. Se cuenta que años después, el rey de Wei ordenó a Pang Yuan sitiar la capital del reino de Zhao, cuyo monarca solicitó la ayuda de Qi, que respondió enviando a Sun Bin y al General Tian Ji. Sun “El Mutilado” estructuró un ataque de distracción sobre la capital de Wei, al tiempo que tendió una emboscada sobre las tropas invasoras, que el estratega preveía que serían llamadas de regreso para socorrer su capital. Sun Bin engañó al general enemigo haciéndolo creer que el ejército de Qi era cobarde y estaba desertando, lo que llevó al comandante de las tropas de Wei a lanzarse a la persecución con solo una fuerza personal de tropas de choque.
Este hecho fue previsto por Sun Bin quien hizo cortar un gran árbol, descortezarlo y atravesarlo en una zona de caminos estrechos en los que se calculó que al caer la noche llegarían las fuerzas invasoras, escribiendo en la corteza: “El general de Wei morirá en este árbol”, al tiempo que desplegó en los alrededores un cuerpo de arqueros selectos. Al llegar el general de Wei, ordenó prender una antorcha para poder leer la inscripción, momento en el cual docenas de arqueros dispararon en masa sobre el fuego de la antorcha, siendo los soldados de Wei avasallados por la maniobra. Dicen las historias que en la caótica retirada que siguió, el general enemigo, herido, se suicidó y Pang Yuan logró escapar en medio de grandes dificultades, alcanzando a ver en la distancia a Sun Bin, su rival, sentado en una silla, quien lo había derrotado de forma categórica al lograr una gran victoria con un mínimo costo.
El texto de estrategia de Sun Bin, tal y como lo señala la traducción de Thomas Cleary, sigue la misma estructura interconectada del Arte de la Guerra de Sun Tzu, siendo el documento “una recopilación de aforismos y analectas, generalmente organizados de una forma asociativa más que en un orden progresivo y lineal (Cleary, 1996, pág.18)”, que es la forma más común de abordar los textos en occidente. Asimismo, el texto “recoge algunas de las conversaciones del Maestro Sun Bin con el rey y el General Tian Ji, para quienes actuaba como consejero, procediendo a tratar muy diversos temas, pero centrándose en temas puramente estratégicos y tácticos, siendo el libro de Sun Bin un texto complejo, basado en el sentido chino del orden holístico, en lugar de basarse en el sentido de la lógica helenística (Cleary, 1996, pág.18)”.
Sun Bin redactó su texto de una forma “altamente secreta por su naturaleza, siendo recogido en un lenguaje extremadamente difícil, que a menudo sustituye los caracteres homónimos en una especie de código críptico… Yendo el texto mucho más lejos que el de su distinguido antepasado en el detalle de las prácticas, estando los métodos representados por estructuras que operan con metáforas de acontecimientos y actividades distintas a la guerra, abordando el ámbito del gobierno, la diplomacia, el comercio y la acción social (Cleary, 1996, pág.18)”. La obra de Sun Bin ha demostrado ser invaluable debido al notable énfasis que pone en tres elementos centrales del pensamiento estratégico: El liderazgo, la organización y la estrategia.
En ese sentido y siguiendo el análisis de Cleary, Sun Bin aborda estos aspectos medulares del pensamiento estratégico de forma concreta y detallada, siendo el liderazgo un tema al que concede especial importancia. Sun Bin es preciso al momento de definir los pilares de un buen liderazgo (Conocimiento, sabiduría, confiabilidad, humanidad, valor, rigor y modestia), abordando también con profundidad las fallas de carácter que conspiran contra el liderazgo (El desconocimiento, la codicia, la cobardía, la debilidad, los vicios, el militarismo, la negligencia, el egocentrismo, la indisciplina, la impulsividad, la ambición arrogante, la sed de sangre, la falta de resolución, la fala de confiabilidad o la violencia de temperamento), siendo estos elementos aspectos centrales que se deben tener en cuenta para el éxito en cualquier actividad, especialmente la guerra.
Sun Bin es categórico al afirmar que “aunque la función del líder es impartir orden a la acción del grupo, requiere naturalmente de ciertas capacidades en su persona, el poder efectivo del líder para elegir una organización también depende de la integridad estructural o del orden de la organización… El orden implica la estructura organizativa, la cadena de mando y la logística (Cleary, 1996, pág.176)”. En ese contexto el autor resalta en diversas ocasiones y de diversas formas, que es vital que los lideres cultiven su mente, su carácter, sus capacidades organizativas y sus capacidades de planificación inteligente, siendo necesario que dominen la capacidad de adaptación, la tranquilidad mental y la imperturbabilidad, subrayando la importancia de evitar la llegada a cargos de responsabilidad de personas sin conocimiento, incompetentes o ineficaces.
A ese respecto destaca que “cuando establezcas puestos oficiales, debes hacerlo de forma de estos sean adecuados para cada persona”, resaltando al igual que el Maestro Sun, la importancia del conocimiento, manifestando que “conociendo a los demás y conociéndote a ti mismo, la victoria no estará en peligro”. Sus reflexiones también abordan diversos temas relacionados con la guerra como la economía de fuerzas, la importancia de la fluidez y de confundir al enemigo, así como de la moral, la ética, de la forma de escoger personas, de actuar cuando se está preparado y del conocimiento del entorno, siendo Sun Bin enfático al recordar que “la guerra es una crisis nacional, es necesario examinar los fundamentos de la muerte y la vida, así como las formas de supervivencia y extinción”. Por estas razones, “Sun El Mutilado” legó un poderoso cuerpo de conocimiento en materia de pensamiento estratégico que, siguiendo la visión interconectada del pensamiento chino, continúa sirviendo de guía a través de los siglos.
Finalmente, otro invaluable texto que recoge los aportes de China al pensamiento estratégico es “La guía ejecutiva Zhenguan” del Emperador Tang Taizong (598-649). El emperador nació en la provincia de Shaanxi, siendo el segundo hijo del gobernador y comandante militar Li Yuan, quien tuvo veintidós hijos y diecinueve hijas, estando al servicio de la dinastía Sui, siendo su linaje una mezcla chino-turcomano con una importante tradición de servicio militar. Al nacer fue llamado Li Shimi y las historias cuentan que cuando tenía cuatro años, un vidente predijo que un día salvaría al mundo y sacaría al pueblo de la miseria, siendo su nombre la unión de las palabras “Shi” que significa “el mundo” y “Min” que significa “el pueblo”. “Tang” es el nombre de su dinastía y “Taizong” su título imperial.
Taizong, de acuerdo con la información que nos suministra Chinghua Tang en su traducción de “Las Reglas del Emperador”, creció como un hombre fuerte, audaz y extrovertido, que inicialmente no se interesó por las cuestiones académicas, sino que cultivo la caza, las artes marciales, el tiro con arco y montar a caballo, animales por los que sentía una gran pasión, todas estas habilidades muy valoradas en tiempos de caos, conflicto e incertidumbre. El emperador se casó a los quince años con la futura emperatriz Zhangsun, una mujer educada, sencilla y amable, a la que amó profundamente pero que falleció de forma prematura. Creció profundamente influido por la decadencia de la breve dinastía Sui (581-618), cuyo reinado fue construido por el Emperador Wen, un líder concienzudo, trabajador y frugal, que reunificó China, trayendo prosperidad y estabilidad.
El Emperador Wen fue sustituido por su hijo, el Emperador Yang, un hombre cruel, ambicioso, egocéntrico, extravagante, hedonista, caprichoso y completamente indiferente al sufrimiento del pueblo. Se embarcó en viajes suntuosos, placeres con las mujeres de su harem, una serie de proyectos onerosos como la construcción de una nueva capital y tres desastrosas expediciones en el extranjero contra el reino coreano de Koguryo. La intolerable carga generada por un liderazgo incompetente, los impuestos, las exigencias de mano de obra y la constante pérdida de tropas, llevó a una sublevación que se convirtió en una serie de rebeliones que arrasaron todo el país. A esto le siguió el amotinamiento de sus irresponsables e incompetentes ministros y el estrangulamiento del Emperador Yang en el palacio.
Durante los tres años subsiguientes China vivió una ola de caos y encarnizadas batallas entre diferentes aspirantes al título de emperador, estando el padre de Taizong entre los contendientes, siendo él quien logró finalmente hacerse con la victoria sobre los demás competidores por el trono. Durante estos turbulentos años Li Shimin “demostró ser un luchador valiente, un comandante soberbio y un inteligente estratega que cumplió con sus deberes diligentemente, lo que le llevó a ganarse la lealtad inquebrantable de sus tropas y el respeto de sus enemigos… Su padre lo nombró jefe del Ejército, siendo un guerrero intrépido que admitió públicamente que había matado a casi mil hombres con sus propias manos, en las batallas en las que participó (Tang: 2017.pág 150)”.
Li Yuan, siguiendo la tradición, nombró a su primogénito como heredero, pero la notoriedad de su segundo hijo hizo que el heredero al trono se sintiera incómodo, en especial debido a que sus méritos militares estaban muy lejos de los de su hermano menor, situación que también dividió a la corte entre partidarios y opositores de los dos hermanos. Li Shimin, que ya contaba con notables conocimientos en el ámbito militar, empezó a prepararse para hacerse con el trono, para lo cual “se rodeó de varias eminencias literarias y políticas que formaron su comité de expertos y después de terminar las tareas diarias, se ponía a estudiar los clásicos del confucianismo, historia y literatura bajo la dirección de eruditos famosos discutiendo con ellos las cuestiones políticas y novedades del imperio (Tang: 2017.pág 150)”. La tensión entre los hermanos terminó en el año 626, cuando Li Shimin asesinó al príncipe heredero y otro de sus hermanos en una emboscada, obligando a su padre a que le cediera el poder.
De esta forma se convirtió en el segundo Emperador de la Dinastía Tang, tomó el titulo imperial de Taizong e inició oficialmente su reinado en el año 627, a la edad de 29 años, procediendo también a perdonar a los partidarios de su hermano. Taizong, que tenía un agudo intelecto, así como una gran capacidad para juzgar con acierto las fortalezas y debilidades de sus subordinados, fue un hombre carismático, enérgico, leal, exigente e intimidante, que cimentó la Dinastía Tang (618-907), una de las más duraderas y esplendorosas de China, convirtiendo al país en el más poderoso del mundo. El Emperador y su círculo de inteligentes, íntegros e ingeniosos ministros, discutieron ampliamente cual era la mejor forma de gobernar, así como sobre las medidas para lograr que la dinastía perdurara, conversaciones que se recogieron en la “Guía ejecutiva Zhenguan”.
Este texto se convirtió en un clásico del pensamiento estratégico al abordar diversos temas del reinado de Taizong relacionados con la moral, la gestión, las virtudes, el liderazgo, el carácter, el gobierno, la frugalidad, la conducción de la guerra y la educación de las nuevas generaciones, así como el auge y caída de los imperios. Las reflexiones de este incansable Emperador y sus ministros se convirtieron en un referente para la sociedad, los gobernantes o los individuos del común, al ofrecer razonamientos, guía, consejos y orientación sobre como ejercer el liderazgo, pensar a largo plazo, aplicar el arte de la guerra, mejorar la eficiencia organizacional, lograr el autoconocimiento o relacionar el talento y el carácter.
Como lo destaca Tang, el Emperador lideró a través del ejemplo y fue un hombre inagotable que encontró tiempo para el concienzudo estudio de la historia, escribir poemas, la música o la caligrafía, exigiendo un gran esfuerzo por parte de sus funcionarios. Era tolerante con las críticas, extremadamente amable con sus subordinados y no dudaba en consultar a un enemigo del pasado si consideraba que era una persona con talento e integridad. En su comité de expertos “rodeando a Taizong, había un grupo de confidentes, consejeros y seguidores, cada uno de ellos con puntos fuertes únicos; se complementaban unos a otros y formaban un sólido equipo de gobierno… siendo la mayoría de los consejeros de Taizong mayores que él (Tang: 2017.pág 150)”, un hecho que resalta el valor dado a la experiencia.
Durante su vida Taizong trabajó con ahínco por la reconstrucción económica del país, aquejado por la guerra, la inestabilidad política y las migraciones. Revitalizó la ruta de la seda y convirtió la agricultura en su prioridad, dando nueva fuerza al rito de la temporada de labranza, al tiempo que redujo gastos, bajo los impuestos y mejoró la infraestructura (Especialmente la de irrigación), con lo que abrió el camino para el desarrollo económico. Para el Emperador, tal y como lo mención Chinghua Tang, siempre fue fundamental rodearse en su corte de personas competentes, de valía, las cuales debían contar con tres criterios fundamentales: Erudición, piedad filial e integridad moral, siendo también estos los criterios que se esperaba que tuvieran los funcionarios imperiales en su calidad de representantes del Emperador.
También buscó en los funcionarios los valores confucianos de lealtad al gobernante y dedicación al pueblo, siendo los exámenes de selección imperial, herramientas que median talentos, virtudes y habilidades especializadas, en pie de igualdad, al tiempo que los ascensos tenían que estar justificados por el talento, la honestidad, la prudencia, la diligencia y la imparcialidad, mientras que las destituciones debían respaldarse en desméritos debidamente registrados. Para Taizong fue vital la educación, ordenando por ello no solo el proceso de selección basado en méritos, sino también la construcción de escuelas, no siendo extraño que el Emperador acudiese a la universidad imperial a escuchar clases, recompensando los buenos docentes.
Para Taizong fue transcendental desarrollar un sólido sistema de justicia que desarrollaba la visión confuciana “de que son las virtudes y no las leyes duras, las que generan una buena sociedad, siendo revisado y simplificado el código criminal (Tang: 2017.pág 162)” regulando la pena de muerte, actuando contra la difamación y resaltando el valor de la lealtad. En este proceso el Emperador puso un gran énfasis en la lucha contra la corrupción, siendo radical en el tratamiento dado a la recepción de sobornos, los favoritismos o la obtención de favores por parte de familiares, estando los cargos limitados a cuatro años. También fue reconocido por su tolerancia religiosa, sus éxitos militares sobre los turcomanos y su derrota frente al reino coreano de Koguryo.
El Emperador Tang Taizong conquistó su lugar en las páginas de la historia por ser un extraordinario pensador estratégico, de allí que su reinado haya sido llamado “Zhenguan”. Esta expresión significa “la visión de un gobernante sabio al mando de un gran imperio y que durante su dinastía fue un país lleno de confianza, dinámico y abierto a nuevas ideas e inmigrantes, la riqueza del imperio atrajo a visitantes de todas partes y su poesía, pintura y arquitectura fue admirada en el mundo entero (Tang: 2017.pág 176)”. De allí que sus reflexiones, al igual que las de otros pensadores estratégicos chinos, se hayan convertido en un referente atemporal para todos aquellos que buscan orientación para la conducción del gobierno, los negocios o la vida.
Un año antes de morir, Taizong escribió: “Al leer sobre historia me he dado cuenta que todos los emperadores fundadores de dinastías llegaron al poder después de los cuarenta años… Yo fui comandante del ejército a los dieciocho, derroté a las fuerzas rebeldes a los veinticuatro y devine en emperador a los veintinueve años. Era bastante joven cuando me alisté en el ejército, no tuve mucho tiempo para estudiar. Por lo tanto, cuando fui emperador me dediqué a leer siempre que tuve un momento libre. He aprendido los principios del buen gobierno y los he llevado a la práctica, nuestro país estaba en declive pero ahora tiene una salud de hierro… He sido muy afortunado, puesto que he desempeñado mi cargo mejor que muchos gobernantes del pasado. Quiero asegurarme de que mi gobierno tiene un buen principio y un buen final (Tang: 2017.pág 162)”.
Los textos mencionados en los párrafos anteriores, junto con otros como el “El I Ching”, “Seis estrategias”, “El maestro del valle del demonio”, “Estrategia de los reinos combatientes”, “Estrategias extraordinarias de cien batallas” o “Las 36 estrategias Chinas”, son algunos de los principales referentes del pensamiento estratégico chino, una forma de pensar que ha tenido una extraordinaria evolución a lo largo de los siglos. Su existencia no asegura que en todo momento las decisiones sean las correctas, son muchos los factores que están en juego y tal como se evidencia en diferentes momentos de la historia del gigante asiático, han habido extraordinarios periodos de esplendor y terribles momentos de decadencia u obscuridad. Sin embargo, en cualquier contexto, los chinos cuentan con una sólida base de pensamiento estratégico que puede ser utilizada para enfrentar las más diversas situaciones al estar firmemente anclada en textos formales como los aquí abordados, así como en leyendas, mitos, símbolos, experiencias, proverbios, poemas, cuentos, antologías, festivales o canciones populares.
En ese sentido también es necesario mencionar que la larga tradición de artes marciales con las que cuenta el país también ha contribuido al pensamiento estratégico. No debe olvidarse que las artes marciales, como las impartidas en el célebre templo Shaolin con su tradición de Budismo Chan (Zen en Japón) y como lo explica el Shifu Shi Yan Ming en su libro “The Shaolin Workout” o Julia Sloan en su libro “Learning to think strategically” al abordar la importancia de las artes para fortalecer esta forma de pensar, son una herramienta que permite tomar riesgos, enfrentar paradojas, aprender disciplina, apreciar la práctica, cultivar el carácter, emplear la imaginación, experimentar la tensión, expandir las perspectivas, desarrollar el autocontrol, aceptar información incompleta, desarrollar conciencia emocional, construir hábitos positivos, enfrentar diversos elementos competitivos al tiempo, poner atención a lo que no se puede controlar, adquirir referentes morales y éticos, así como aprender procesos creativos a través de técnicas.
Esto hace que las artes marciales sean mucho más que un intercambio de golpes para derrotar a un adversario en una competencia, en una pelea callejera o un campo de batalla, siendo por ello un elemento reconocible en muchos estrategas chinos. Todos estos elementos son vitales para el pensamiento estratégico siendo factores que de diversas formas y en variados contextos podemos identificar en los textos que aquí hemos señalado brevemente. Thomas Cleary citó en su traducción del Arte de la Guerra de Sun Bin un dicho chino: “Los sabios ven la sabiduría, los buenos ven la bondad, como interactúen las personas con una sabiduría tradicional poderosa y secreta como el Arte de la Guerra, revelará algo sobre su carácter interno (Cleary, 1996, pág.18)”, siendo esa expresión un maravilloso recordatorio del poder atemporal de la larga tradición de pensamiento estratégico chino, a la cual podemos acceder hoy y la cual puede ser identificada de diversas formas en el trasfondo del actual retorno del dragón, así como de sus notables éxitos.
Bibliografía
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Chinghua Tang. Las reglas del emperador. Editorial empresa activa. Barcelona. 2017.
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Cleary Thomas. El arte de la estrategia: Lecciones de negociación basadas en la antigua sabiduría China. Editorial EDAF. Madrid 1994.
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Cleary Thomas. Sun Bin: El arte de la guerra II. Editorial Arca de la sabiduría. Madrid. 1996.
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Gao Yuan. Haz que el tigre baje de las montañas: Las 36 estrategias chinas para antigua para la dinámica del individuo. Editorial Diana. México. 1991.
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Gimian James & Boyce Barry. Las reglas de la victoria. EDAF. Madrid. 2008.
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Griffith Samuel & Jaime Barrera Parra. El arte de la guerra de Sun Tzu. Editorial Panamericana. Santafé de Bogotá. 1999.
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Leong Weng Kam & Tsai Chih Chubg. The art of war. Asiapac. Singapur 1991.
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Shi Yann Ming. The Shaolin workout. Editorial Rodale. United States. 2006.
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Sloan Julia. Learning to think strategically. New York. 2011.
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Smith Huston. Las religiones del mundo. Editorial Kairos. Barcelona. 1999.
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